https://www.campusexplorer.com/student-resources/logical-fallacies/#:~:text=Argument%20%2D%20Campus%20Explorer-,20%20Logical%20Fallacies%20to%20Avoid%20When%20Constructing%20an%20Argument,Non%2DSequitur%20Fallacy
1. Ad Hominem
This phrase means, “to the person,” and stands for arguments that are directed at the speaker, not the argument. Discrediting the character of the person making a claim doesn’t make a claim valid or invalid.
Example: “How could I agree with you when you lied about your taxes?”
Some ad hominem fallacies attack a person based not on unrelated errors but on personal traits. Claiming that a viewpoint is wrong because it’s held by someone from another ethnic background, geographical area, or someone with another political view. This form of attack targets the other person and ignores the argument itself.
2. Appeal to Authority
Borrowed from the Latin argumentum ad verecundiam, an appeal to authority logical fallacy claims a view is true because it’s held by an authority figure.
Example: “My doctor voted for this senator, so that must be the right choice.”
Appeals to authority can be as diverse as the definition of authority. An argument can be invalid even if the person is an authority in the relevant area, like a musician supporting a particular band or style of music.
3. Appeal to Ignorance
This argument makes a claim and says it must be true just because neither speaker knows any evidence against the argument.
Example: “I’ve never met someone who doesn’t like pop music.”
These arguments make it difficult to show an alternative view, particularly if the view isn’t widely accepted in a particular region, community, or environment. An appeal to ignorance is often framed in a way that, even when new evidence is presented, the person doesn’t counter it with a valid argument.
4. Appeal to Pity
Exploiting someone’s feelings of pity or guilt to make an argument is a logical fallacy. These emotional arguments don’t form a rational idea or claim.
Example: “If we don’t lower the price of college tuition, then I may not be able to afford a degree.”
Another way that an appeal to pity is commonly framed is as an appeal to the underdog. Just because a person, group, or idea may deserve pity doesn’t mean that the proposed idea is valid and should be supported.
5. Appeal to Popular Opinion
This argument claims that an idea is true because it’s held by many individuals or a select group of important individuals. It’s also known as the common belief fallacy or bandwagon fallacy.
Example: “The world must be round because that’s what most people think.”
As an argument, this fallacy completely avoids the actual validity of any statement and simply seeks to join the crowd. This doesn’t always lead to a correct or logically sound argument.
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